The wooden architecture of Maramures

Remains of a civilisation of wood

Archaeological discoveries in Romania demonstrate the existence of per-manent structures in wood from the 2nd century BC. More extensive and conclusive evidence for the construction techniques which were used begins to appear from the 5th to 7th centuries AD. From this period there are traces of dwelling houses with walls made of large beams laid horizontally with the interstices stopped with clay; the same system has continued in use in the rural architecture of northern Romania up to our own time. At

whether the reference is to peasant dwellings, residences of the local aristocracy, or even the superstructure of defensive military constructions (towers and various other fortifications, generally with a stone base and timber upper storeys). The construction of walls from solid timbers, which is characteristic of the Carpathian ring, continued until the middle of the present century in mountain and hill country. However, other regions, the plateaux and plains, have also known constructions with walls made solely of wood. Analyses of forest soil, linguistic evidence, and the detailed descriptions of rural and urban buildings left by foreign travellers in the Romanian lands all support the view that wooden architecture was formerly

of Romania. The establishment of settlements by clearing areas previously covered by forests, agricultural and pastoral activity, administrative measures imposed in some villages, the uncontrolled exploitation of forests, rafting and the trade in timber, have combined to produce a reduction in the number of constructions with timber walls; in some zones architecture in solid wood has disappeared altogether, and over large areas the use of wattle and daub in a timber frame, or of unbaked earth bricks has been adopted. The architecture of hewn timber laid in the wall in the blockbau system has survived predominantly in the northern part of the country and in the western mountains.

The wooden buildings of Romania belong to vernacular architecture of south-eastern Europe. In the region of the Carpathians and the Dinaric Alps (Romania, the western part of former Yugoslavia, and northern Albania), the principal elements are assembled according to an identical system. The blockbau technique has disappeared faster in the Balkan peninsula and the Rhodope and Pinus ranges, because of the earlier deforestation of these mountains, but it is still found in central and northern Europe.Throughout Europe, elements of wooden construction dating from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages (and into the 17th and 18th centuries) have been found at numerous

Mountains and the plateaux of the Orava and Poprad, there is a traditional wooden architecture with a long history. In the region of Silesia, in southern Poland, we find the technique of construction with superimposed layers of beams. Religious buildings are among the oldest surviving monuments of wooden architecture. They reflect the influence of various architectural styles through the centuries, tending around the beginning of the 18th century towards the model of baroque architecture in stone. Transcarpathian Ukraine has a rich architecture in solid wood, which shows important similarities with the range of forms and constructional techniques used in the north of Romania, particularly in rural civil architecture. The region around Lvov, in western Ukraine, is representative for the architecture of buildings constructed from beams joined at the corners. Characteristic elements are also found in European Russia; we can identify a unity between the region of Novgorod and the area extending north through the regions of Kostroma, Arkhangelsk and Karelia. The churches of this zone are exemplary for the technical solutions and artistic qualities which they display on a monumental scale. The region of Karelia, part of which belonged to Finland between 1918 and 1947, shows the transition towards the wooden architecture of the Nordic countries, due to the presence of structures specific to 17th and 18th century Finnish architecture. Here the peasant houses are made from round trunks laid in the blockbau manner, and the churches from hewn beams; both have shingled roofs in different forms. In some structural and decorative aspects they closely resemble the wooden buildings of Maramures. With the notable exception of the wooden churches constructed from vertical elements which are characteristic of Scandinavian vernacular architecture, these traditional wooden buildings belong to a stylistic continuum, formed by rich and diverse cultural influences.
The typology of wooden buildings is consistent throughout Europe. The
Carpathian chain favoured the emergence of zones of cultural convergence:

inhabitants of Transylvania and Maramures founded villages in Galicia from the 14th to the 16th century, while shepherds migrated with their flocks as far as Moravia and Silesia. Some 15th to 17th century documents show the penetration of a Vlach (Romanian) ethnic component in the western Carpathians. Transylvania, Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine were incorporated in the Hungarian state, and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire included Czecho-slovakia, Hungary, Transylvania, Bukovina and Transcarpathian Ukraine, along with part of Poland. This administrative, legal and economic unification encouraged inter-ethnic contacts. Not limited

Europe and the province of Maramures

 by political frontiers, wooden
 architecture knew more flexible borders, with structures and constructionaltechniques  largely the same over extensive areas. Regional differences appear mainly in details  and relative proportions. The way in which the different parts of the construction are

combined, its vertical development, and the specific form of the roof play a decisive role in particularising domestic architecture. Religions architecture is generally more con-servative, with little diversity in the basic structures, which remain horizontal; however, it has room for variation in the form and covering of the bell tower, which may be incor-porated in the body of the building, rising above system of vaulting.

Maramures - a land apart

Villages among rivers The Land of Maramures is one of the largest depressions in the Carpathian range, covering a surface of around 10,000 km² between the mountains of Oas, Gutîi and Tibles. The basin of the upper Tisa divides the region in two, with the part to the South of the Tisa belonging to Romania. In the Romanian part of Maramures, the Tisa has four importart tributaries: the Iza, the Viseu, the Cosau and the Mara. The region is furrowed with the smaller valleys of secondary tributaries. The valleys are narrow and steep sided in their upper stretches, but open out as they descend. The mountain massifs which surround it range between 1,500 and 2,000 m in height, and the floors of the valleys lie between 200 and 500 m above sea level. The Land of Maramures can thus be divided into distinct geographical micro zones. The hills between the valleys rise to between 700 and 800 m, at which height they are still covered by forests of beech and spruce; above 1,500 m there are alpine meadows.

 The name 'Land of Maramures' first appears in documents from the end of the 13th  century, in the period of Hungarian expansion in Transylvania. In the 14th century  Maramures is known to have been ruled by a local voivode. In the following century  Orthodox Ruthenians migrated into the region, settling near the Tisa. After 1688,  Maramures became part of the Habsburg Empire, along with Transylvania. In 1920,  the region was divided between Czechoslovakia and Romania, and  northern  Maramures was integrated in Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia (Podkarpatska Rus). This  territory was occupied by Hungary in 1939 and by the Soviet Union in 1944. Since  1991 it has been part of Ukraine. The southern (Romanian) part of Maramures was  occupied by Hungary between 1940 and 1944, thereafter returning within the  borders of Romania. The present Maramures County extends well beyond the  historical Land of Maramures, and includes the Lands of Lapus and Chioar to the  South of the Gutîi Mountains, distinct cultural areas with their own individuality.

 Names and villages
 Settlements in Maramures are generally large, consisting of homesteads laid out at  varying distances from each other along a road. Orchards, pasture and woods lie  around villages or groups of homesteads. A number of leading families are

associated with the development of each village, and have left their  traces in the structure of the settlement and its properties, in the names of places  and people, in the history of the church and in traditional customs. The large villages  are divided into Susani (upper) and Josani (lower) parts, each part having a church; the oldest churches are considered to be the Susani. The wooden churches are thus evidence for the original foundation of these villages on secondary valleys and their later extension down to the line of the principal valleys. At present there are few homesteads on the hillside away from the heart of the village;

A house dating from the beginning of the 20th century, in Rona de Sus, a village on the road from the Viseu Valley to Sighetu Marmatiei. The old houses of the Ukrainians who settled in this area are similar to those of the Romanians. This house is distinguished by its elevation. The original shingle roof has been replaced by tin.

 the occupants of

such isolated houses are said to live 'in the fields'. Footpaths in the hills over the watershed between valleys provide shortcuts from one village to another. An ethnic patchwork The micro-zones of Maramures have their specific ethnic structures. A population of Slav origin (the Houtsoules) is found mainly in the Viseu and Ruscova valleys.Villages on the Tisa are inhabited by a mixed ethnic population made up of Romanians, Slavs (Poles, Slovaks and Ukrainians), Magyarised Germans, Hungarians and even Italians, who came a century and a half ago to work in the salt mines. The villages of the Iza, Mara and Cosau valleys are purely Romanian; they have played an important part in the political history of the region.

At haymaking time, people are already thinking again about winter. The grass, which is carefully dried before being lifted onto the haystacks, will serve as food for their animals. These elements of temporary architecture enliven the rural landscape in the warmest season of the year.

The rural landscape of the Land of Maramures is distinct from that of its neighbouring zones. The built space and that used for human activity exploit the natural qualities of the place in a unique way. Architecture, peasant costume, and local customs preserve traditions and meanings which nourish a strong identity through material, form, colour and gesture.

The homesteads in this outlying hamlet belonging to the village of Ieud illustrate the way in which land is occupied. The main village has developed along the length of the valley, extending towards the mouth of the leudisor burn. In a concentrated space, demarcated by open enclosures, communication between neighbours is easy. Within each property, the functional routes between the different buildings can be observed.

The peasant homestead

The peasant homestead is above all a grouping of structures (and thus of functions) which is normally enclosed. In terms of the relation between private space and that of the community, the Maramures homestead can be characterized as being of an open type. Its enclosure permits easy visual and auditory communication between the family space and that reserved for movement or work. The enclosing fence is low and irregular in plan, and allows the homestead buildings to be seen wholly or partially. An aerial view reveals the overall texture of the homestead, and all the connections which exist between land, buildings, roads etc. With the growth of villages, subdivision of the available space has given rise to a linear arrangement of nuclear structures. The creation of new nuclei has necessitated the multiplication of access lanes, with numerous interconnecting routes between homesteads. As a result not all homesteads are on the main street of the village. Access routes often go through simple gates, crossing neighbouring homesteads. The built environment is overlaid with the varied geometrical compositions of the paths which link the buildings, taking on the configuration of a dense spiritual space, which echoes the sacred community space around the church. In the traditional Maramures homestead, the house has a secondary facade towards the road or lane, and its principal facade towards the yard. The road acquires its rhythm from the house, the gate, and sometimes a cross beside the gate. However, there are also homesteads in which the house has its principal facade towards the road. The house generally looks towards the South;

facing the sun is particularly important in villages overlooked by hills and mountains, which receive little light in the winter. The barn (which includes shelter for animals as well as storage space for fodder and

 agricultural
 equipment) is set either at a right angle to the house or facing it. The multiplication of  homesteads and the uneven surface of the ground have led  to diversification in plan.  The geometry of the homestead is enriched by the forms of  the gates and of the  crosses which can be seen against the buildings and against the  sky.

The wayside cross The cross set up beside the road next to a gate defines the personality of the homestead by its form and colour, linking the community space with that of the family. Everyone who passes it makes the sign of the cross, and men take off

 their hats. The gestures
 are just the same as if they were passing in front of a church. The garden of the  Maramures homestead occupies a relatively modest area, and is given over to
 several sorts of vegetables.

This is a traditional homestead typical of the Maramures vlllages, in which the geometrical composition of the roof emphasizes the tectonic character of the architecture. The gate shows an expressive alternation of surfaces and volumes. Between the fence and the gate is the customary resting place, used by the household on feast days.

Given the shortage of fertile land for the cultivation of vegetables and cereals, the garden is a veritable 'treasure'; having a place for a few fruit trees (apples, pears and plums), potatoes, and beans for the animals, means a lot for the economy of the household. Separated from the rest of the homestead by a simple wooden fence, the garden is

The barn incorporating two compartments for animals is an important element of the homestead. This example was built in 1920 in the village of Calinesti in the Cosau Valley, and is typical of the early 20th century. The size of the roof reflects that of the loft which could be filled with hay from inside the barn.

 looked after by the
 whole family. In the contemporary Maramures homestead, the house and the  buildings for animals are larger than in the past. The barn has more compartments  under the same roof, and sometimes serves also as a temporary living space for  people.

Patches of land between the houses are used for vegetables. It is usually the women who deal with the cultivation of these gardens. Lettuce and onions are the first vegetables which appear after the long winter. In the spring, the first leaves of the vegetables introduce a touch of green between the homesteads.

This outbuilding of a homestead in the village of Hoteni, on the Mara Valley, includes a typical barn door design. Built in 1996, it is a multifunctional construction, including space for animals, for the storing of fodder, and for human occupation in the summer. Modern materials have been used, except for the wood of the doors and the triangular element above them. The ornament consists of pieces of wood, cut into various shapes and applied in symmetrical compositions.

In the village of Ieud in the Iza Valley, there is a still living tradition of woodworking which dates back many generations. A well known carpenter erected this cross in the garden of his parents' house in 1986, in memory of his father and grandfather. The cross was carved in oak, following a design sketched in 1926.

Types of building

The Maramures village is made up of separate homesteads, in which constructions have appeared and diversified according to the needs of the family and the demands of its social status. The homestead, like the village, is a complex economic entity.

The house is the prin-cipal building of the homestead, and the first to be built on the family hold-ing; its role and position determine the importance of the associated buildings.

The larder The traditional homestead also included a modest construction which was a sort of larder separate from the house, where basic foodstuffs and household objects were stored. The well Not all homesteads have their own well. The well may be positioned half within the homestead yard and half on the roadside, and even if it is wholly in the yard it will be used by

This simple shelter for pigs and domestic fowl, now in the Maramures Ethnographical Museum, is built to be permanent, and demonstrates inventiveness in the distribution of spaces and in the ways in which the component parts are linked. Despite the reduced scale, it displays an impressive handling of volume, and the same skilful work in wood which is seen in more important constructions.

This well that belonged to a homestead in Calinesti is now preserved at the Maramures Ethnographical Museum in Sighetu Marmatiei. The well, used by several families, is sometimes placed in a break in the wattle fence. The body of the well is made from short pieces of wood with carved joints. The posts which support the conical roof are cut in forms which occur also in other architectural elements.

In front of the smithy, at the crossing of two village Ianes, cartwheels are being prepared. The energy of the fire and human skill go into the making of these iron objects, destined to carry heavy loads along the country roads. A whole history of action and gesture is concentrated in everything that is made for human use.

For conservation purposes, the church from Oncesti in the Iza Valley was transported to the Ethnographical Museum in Sighetu Marmatiei, where it has been restored and placed on a hill, as in many Maramures villages. The church is a remarkable monument, dating from the 16th century. It is built in oak, and has a simple tower, in perfect harmony with the main body of the building.

The fence and gate These are essential elements in the architecture of the homestead, delimiting the family space and relating it to the world of the village, and

The hay store
The homestead also includes a place for storing hay: four poles on which a roof can be slid up or down according to the quantity of hay to be covered. This simple shelter is commonly seen in the fields, in places where grass is kept for the cattle. In its newer form, it is a closed construction like a square tower. It is usually found at the edge of villages on land used for feeding animals.

Workshops
Workshops for wood- or leather-working may be set up within the homestead, but blacksmiths' workshops belong in the community, as is fitting given the space which they require. Shoeing horses, making cart-wheels and tools, and repair work are all operations involving the participation of several people. The work of fire takes place in the view of all and enlivens the built landscape.

Riverside installations and distilleries
Also in the community space are various large and small structures set up beside rivers and streams. These include water-powered installations for the preparation of heavy woollen textiles, for cutting timber, and for milling cereals. Distilleries, where tuica is distilled from local fruit, are also set up beside flowing water.

The church and cemetery The most important construction in the village is the wooden church. In Maramures, all the large villages erected one or two

The principal woods used in construction were fir, spruce and pine in the valleys of the Viseu and the upper Iza, and beech and oak in the Mara basin, on the lower Iza and in the Cosau valley. Different woods were also used for different parts of a building. Oak was always used for the lowest and most massive wall beams (known as tälpi or 'soles'), which supported the entire construction and were themselves set on boulders or on a stone platform. Oak wall beams were cut to a rectangular section, while whole trunks of fir with only the bark removed were used in the oldest buildings, giving a circular section to the beams. Later fir also was split in

The marks of the axe Water powered saws were little used in Maramures for splitting tree trunks. Instead the work of cutting down and shaping timber was done manually; tool-marks in the wood record the actions and gestures of those who shaped it. The crafts manly handling of the material imparts a vibration of feeling and invention. The craftsmen used axes for the initial rough shaping. Trunks which were intended for wall beams were then shaped on two or four sides with a smaller axe.

The technique of building wooden walls with corner and intermediate posts - a method often adopted elsewhere in order to economize on material - was seldom used in Maramures. The walls are tapped by a frame of beams similar to the 'soles'. These support the longitudinal beams which provide a base

Shingling by threes The oldest roofing material was wheat or rye straw. Subsequently the use of shingles spread in Maramures, and became the dominant technique, indeed the only one used for roofing certain types of construction. Wood for shingles has to

third shingle is laid over each pair, in order to prevent water penetrating. The charcoal residue from the smoke of domestic fires is used to conserve the

Floors and ceilings The flooring in old houses was based on a filling of earth, sometimes containing stones, beaten down with a wooden hammer. Over this was a layer of earth mixed with cut straw and water, which was covered in turn with thin layers of yellow earth. Only the room intended for guests would have a floor of wooden boards. Most houses now have wooden floors. However, there are still

The village of Preluca is in the same administrative region and in a neighbouring ethnographic zone to the Land of Maramures, and its buildings are similar to those of Maramures itself. This wooden house has no lack of exposed structural features and partial profiles, like those of the corner joints, the eaves, and the beams supported on posts. Straw is the oldest material used for roofing. The building has been moved and reassembled in the Baia Mare Ethnographical Museum.

The traditional Maramures house never developed an upper storey; it kept its form and arrangement of volumes until the appearance of new styles of building in the 1980s. This type of construction emphasizes the 'box' of the house in relation to the height of the walls and of the

rafters to give a steeper slope. The ordering of structural elements, with the symmetry imposed by technical restrictions, set appreciable linear limits for each volume. The body of the construction, unimpeded by subdivisions, is characterised by its clear forms and the solidity of its masses. The roof, with its full and expressive silhouette, is an identifying feature of Maramures village architecture. The entrance to a wooden house is enriched by the creation of the prispa, the half open porch space, which offers a concentration of important decorative surfaces. Over the years the prispa has developed into a small veranda in front of the house. It's well defined volume is